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Urbanisation has taken the world by storm, with half the globe residing in urban centers and a projected increase of 66% by 2050. Homo sapiens have immersed themselves in different kinds of ecosystems, from plains to fragile ecosystems such as the mountains, forming a new kind of ecosystem called the “urban ecosystem” in the process. In fact, studies indicate that more than 66% of the global mountain population lives in urbanised areas (Altaf et al., 2023). These figures hold tremendous relevance in the context of India, home to the youngest and most fragile Himalayan ranges.

Rapid urbanisation in India has not stopped at the foothills but has rather continued to encroach into the higher altitudes, both fragile and non-fragile zones of the terrain, paving the way for a plethora of risks and vulnerabilities, predominantly environmental and
socio-economic in nature, such as water scarcity, pollution, congestion, loss of livelihood, etc. For instance, despite being the water tower for most of Asia, residents across the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region continue to face rampant water insecurity. Similarly, one of the reasons for the damage accounted for about 3785 residential dwellings of lower income groups during the 2009 landslide in the Nilgiris hills of South India is the absence of proper hydrological nexus management resulting from haphazard urban development.

The water crisis in the higher elevations has become as real as it can get. The rivers originating from the mountains act as lifelines for billions of people living in the low-lying plains, yet there is intense pressure on the water resources in the hilly region to meet the growing demands for water consumption. Some of the major water-related issues that have come to the fore in the hill regions are:

• Drying up of Springs: According to a NITI Aayog report from 2018, nearly half of the springs in the Indian Himalayan Region were drying up. Cities like Almora in Uttarakhand have experienced an 83% decline in springs. These springs are crucial not only for providing a consistent source of water but also for sustaining several spring-fed rivers flowing through the region. Rapid urban expansion, without proper water management, has led to the depletion and contamination of these natural springs. Additionally, increased concretization and reduced forest cover have significantly reduced water retention in the soil and spring recharge, leading to water scarcity.
• Destruction of Natural Water Catchments: In the absence of proper hydrological understanding, the lack of norms and regulations, and indiscriminate development projects, all have contributed to the destruction of water catchments in the upper regions of the Indian Himalayas. Rampant development over small streams, potential water sinks, and connecting aquifers has had impacts on the landscape and the watershed, thereby forcing communities to migrate from their native towns and villages in search of water.
• Rampant Deforestation: According to an article in UNDRR(1), in Uttarakhand, over 45,000 hectares of forest land have been converted for other uses since 1980. These forests in the hill ecosystems act as natural sponges, storing and releasing water gradually, helping to maintain river flow and groundwater recharge. With forests being cleared to make space for infrastructure, parking lots, and buildings, we are already witnessing catastrophic events in the form of landslides, land subsidence, and extreme erosion caused by river torrents.
• Increasing Unsustainable Anthropogenic Activities: The fragile ecology of the hills is continuously subjected to unsustainable practices, rapid encroachment, and disruption of natural water movement. This, in turn, is exacerbated by a significant influx of a floating population, which not only exceeds the carrying capacity but also overwhelms the cities and towns initially designed for a smaller population. This vulnerability makes hill cities particularly susceptible to water stresses.
• Increasing Natural and Man-Made Disasters: Climate change-induced disasters like flash floods, landslides, and cloud bursts are becoming increasingly common in the upper reaches of these ranges, causing devastating impacts. Alongside the impact of climate change, the risks of cloudburst floods and cryospheric hazards are on the rise. Across the region, from Kinnaur and Spiti Valley in India to Mustang in northern Nepal, people’s cropping patterns are changing, and the impact on local economies and traditional livelihoods cannot be overstated.

Moreover, the prevailing governance models and response mechanisms are not well-equipped to avert the crisis at hand. Nor is the urban planning sector adept at addressing the mountain- specific fragilities and subsequent vulnerabilities related to water systems. This can wipe out the natural water systems in hill regions in no time. Thus, addressing water-related issues in hill cities requires an immediate and multifaceted approach that includes sustainable urban planning, reforestation efforts, improved waste management, and disaster preparedness measures. Additionally, engaging local communities and harnessing local practices and wisdom can help address some of the water problems and integrate the surface and subsurface flows integral to water systems in hilly regions.

This is where the Urban River Management Plan (URMP) Framework comes into the picture. This framework, developed by the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) and the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) in 2020, focuses on promulgating river- sensitive development in Indian cities. What sets URMP apart from other frameworks and instruments is its ability to comprehensively focus on integrated water resource management by shifting from a siloed to a systems approach and its flexibility to work across different kinds of cities, regardless of their character. So far, URMPs have been formulated for cities in different geo-climatic zones but mostly covering plains. To reimagine it in the hilly ‘urban’ context, the 10-point objectives would need to be customised and modified, taking into consideration the following extremely crucial points:

URMP as a tool for Mitigation and management

Objective 1 – Regulating floodplain activities and Watershed management
In the context of hill cities, development usually occurs along the mountain terraces, which are also part of the fluvial floodplain. For instance, the mountain town of Kargil is situated on a fluvial terrace on the orographic (mountainous relief) left bank of the Suru River, a tributary of the Indus. Since orographic reliefs are prone to various natural disasters, such as earthquakes, snow avalanches, landslides, cloudbursts, and flash floods, the hazardous impacts of these disasters only worsen with haphazard inorganic urban development on alluvial fans and near river beds (resulting in flash floods and debris flows after torrential rainfall).

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Therefore, it becomes extremely important to preserve and protect the natural catchment from encroachment. The first step in achieving this is to understand and map all the small and large streams flowing through any hill city and devise urban planning norms with proper green buffers along these streams and rivulets, backed by scientific analysis. At the policy level, it becomes crucial to mandate hill cities to develop their drainage/watershed maps with a keen understanding of the topography and water flows.

Objective 2 – Pollution free river
Wastewater and solid waste management play a crucial role in the rivers and rivulets of hill cities. The rivers upstream have mostly remained clean and pristine due to their inherent cleaning abilities. However, recent floods and the backflow of a substantial amount of solid waste and debris into the cities make it evident that the waste being dumped into the mountain rivers has surpassed the natural self-healing capacity of the river ecosystems. Furthermore, at several CPCB monitoring stations, the levels of E. coli and BOD exceed the CPCB norms for drinking water. This necessitates the development of proper strategies and guidelines for decentralised wastewater and solid waste management in hill cities, including an analysis of both upstream and downstream towns and cities. Equally critical is the need to monitor and maintain the water quality in the springs and groundwater, which also serve as the source for numerous smaller spring-fed rivers in the region.

Objective 3 – Rejuvenate springs, seasonal/intermittent streams, water bodies and wetlands
In the hill cities, springs are the main source of water for a number of mountain communities. It is an area of work that has gained significant importance in the last decade after experiencing an alarming rate of springs drying up in the Indian Himalayan Region. There is already an extensive body of work developed by ICIMOD[2] and partners, laying out a step by step methodology on revival and community management of springs in the region. The urban planning strategies need to incorporate springs and spring catchments like forests into any future development and layout clear mandates on the spring recharge and management.

Objective 4 – Enhance riparian buffer and forests
Riparian areas and forests are indispensable for water and flood management in hill cities due to their multifaceted roles. These natural features act as critical buffers against flooding by absorbing excess rainwater, reducing surface runoff, and stabilising riverbanks, thus minimising the risk of flash floods and erosion in hilly terrains. They also serve as natural filters, purifying water before it enters rivers and streams, ensuring high water quality crucial for both ecological health and human consumption. Unlike plain cities, hill cities are usually blessed with riparian forests, which is why urban river management in the hill cities will have to prioritise their preservation by implementing zoning regulations that restrict development, promoting afforestation and reforestation, and collaborating with local communities to ensure the sustainable coexistence of urbanisation and natural ecosystems in hill cities.

Objective 5 – Increased reuse of treated wastewater
With hill cities suffering from acute water stress, the idea of utilising used water holds immense potential as an additional source of water. According to the NITI Aayog Report on Composite Water Management Index (CWMI), Uttarakhand is said to treat only 32% of the 352 million litres per day of wastewater despite having a potential of 57%. One strong reuse avenue for the hill cities post-active treatment, as per CPCB standards, includes rejuvenation of intermittent/seasonal water channels and revival of defunct springs, etc

Objective 6 – Maximum good-quality return flow
Return flow holds prominence from the e-flow perspective; the golden rule here is that the amount of return flow should be in proportion to the amount of water the city takes from the river. Adopting a healthy practice of returning as much water taken to the intermittent water channels is also a good way of replenishing the hill cities’ watershed.

Objective 7 – Eco-friendly riverfront projects
The most appropriate approach to riverfront development in hill cities is having minimal to no development around the river at all. Such an approach recognizes the intrinsic value of these water bodies and their integral role in the delicate ecosystem of hill areas. Eschewing extensive development along riverbanks will not only safeguard the ecological integrity of these watercourses but also mitigate the risks of erosion, flash floods, and water pollution. This eco- centric approach must look at sustainable urban planning that blends harmoniously with nature, offering opportunities for recreation, habitat preservation, and inviting communities to connect with the untouched beauty of the rivers. One example of this is having biodiversity parks and wildlife sanctuaries. Similarly, existing riverfront interventions can also be made eco-friendly through the use of rainwater harvesting structures such as inverted umbrellas (ulta-chatha), permeable materials such as gravel, stones, etc.

Objective 8 – Leveraging the economic potential of the river
With the development of most hill cities revolving around the region being an epicentre of religious and political activity, rivers are a good medium for the city to leverage economic potential. However, it should not be at the cost of the delicate mountain ecosystem. Interventions incorporating the indigenous products of the cities may be employed, such as the pine cone crafts of Nainital, shawls of Kashmir, etc.

Objectives 9 and 10 – Citizen Awareness of River-Sensitive Behaviour and Engaging Them in River Management Activities
The natives and locals are unmatched stakeholders of the water systems in hilly regions, as evident from their indigenous water management systems such as kuhls of Himachal Pradesh, Gharats of Uttarakhand and Kashmir, etc. For centuries, they have adapted and evolved practices that keep up with the volatile and unpredictable climate conditions in the high-altitude upper regions. Therefore, they are vital to safeguarding the water resources in hilly cities of the Himalayan region. It has already been seen time and again that a collaborative model fosters a deep sense of ownership and responsibility, not only preserving the ecological health of the water sources but also nurturing the social fabric of hill cities through shared values and a shared commitment to environmental stewardship. Moreover, all the above-discussed strategies under each objective hold true as long as there is a strong and unwavering commitment, cooperation, and support from the local communities who are ultimately the end stakeholders of these systems.

Conclusion and way forward

The URMP framework has so far been explored in urban centres with little topographic variation and predictable hydrological patterns. However, the framework can be customised and modified to include the peculiarities of hilly regions, thus formulating a comprehensive roadmap for the sustainable management of rivers and associated water systems in hilly regions. The time to adapt and implement this is now, before it becomes irreversible.

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All in all, the imperative to draw attention and take action on urban rivers and associated water systems in the hilly region of the Indian Himalayas cannot be overemphasised. The urgency of our efforts and the need for comprehensive policy focus on water resource management in urban centres situated in hilly areas have never been more pressing. As we witness the escalating environmental challenges and the detrimental impact of unchecked urbanisation on these hill systems, there is a need to act swiftly to protect these vital water sources. We owe it to future generations to preserve the pristine beauty and ecological significance of these unique waterways, ensuring a sustainable and harmonious coexistence between urban development and nature in this fragile yet resilient region.

Views expressed by: Manju Rajeev Kanchan, Research Associate, Water and Environment Vertical, National Institute of Urban Affairs

Ishleen Kaur, Sr.Environment Specialist, Water and Environment Vertical, National Institute of Urban Affairs

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